Asset-driven or needs/demand-driven, intervention objectives and priorities must have the people involved at the beginning. Bottom-up, community-led, where the communities are involved, active and responsive, including in decision making and problem-solving process. Aim for community empowerment and knowledge level raising through multiple approaches and directly counter colonial model that disregard local input when impose external solutions.

Inclusion-focused emphasises local community engagement as a citizen. Inclusion vulnerable and underrepresented community members throughout the development process, addressing systemic marginalisation and power imbalances. Effective planning combines knowledge and value for resources for long-term community benefits.

Assets/ resources/ strengths within a community are well identified and mapped, including indigenous and local knowledge systems. Power of relationships and links within the community are thoroughly assessed, including at individual level. Use existing assets is encouraged as an “investment” to create more resources.

Locally available sources are prioritised. Specific community vulnerabilities, risks, barriers in a defined location are understood and targeted. Local/ indigenous knowledge and traditional ecological practices incorporated as integral part of technological solutions, challenging the dominance of external or "universal" approaches. Respect placed on community’s cultural heritage. Aim is for actions to reduce community vulnerabilities.

Mutual, two-way learning for both local community and external actors to acquire new information, skills, or knowledge, and for developers/ outsiders to meaningfully integrate local knowledge into the program/ project/ intervention planning and implementation. Effective and well-designed information dissemination is transparent for entire project cycle: consultation, vision and goal setting, decision making, contribution in project deployment, and evaluation.

Collaborative partnerships and improving capacity of people to collaborate for common objectives are encouraged. Non-technical experts involved from project inception. Capability to identify actors within and outside community. Capability to connect with external supports when necessary. Roles and responsibilities for each stakeholder involved are defined.

Robust governance structures and clear ownership of the asset management. Strong leadership with strong commitment for transition and transformation. Established mechanisms for conflict management and resolutions. Institutional, social, and technical capacities developed for monitoring and evaluation.

Governance challenges in RES implementation manifest through both institutional and political dimensions. At the institutional level, barriers include non-transparent transfers from national to sub-national governments in Indonesia [54] and unclear post-construction ownership, as observed in Chile [69], Western China [70], and African mini-grid projects [71], [72]. Institutional barriers also stem from inadequate full-cycle project planning [73], [74], particularly post-implementation phase [70], including maintenance planning [75]. Political barriers compound these through heavily top-down approach from centralised governance with limited sub-national involvement [54], [76] and lack of long-term vision for energy transition from authorities [76]. Additional barriers include inconsistent regulations, administrative complexities, corruption tendencies, and non-transparent procurement frameworks [76], [77]. Political discontinuity, particularly evidenced in Nigerian projects, often disrupts implementation when new administrations change priorities [71].

However, several success enablers have been identified, including community ownership models as seen in India [78], and clear management structures in Malawi [72] and Zambia [79]. Strong intermediaries have also proven crucial, as demonstrated by IBEKA in Indonesia [77] and OLADE in Latin America [80], and catholic missionaries in Venezuela [81]. These intermediaries can facilitate communities’ access to after-sale services such as warranty [79], supporting their operation and maintenance (O&M) activities. The establishment of community-driven organisations, rooted in the community's determination and collective action, has emerged as another key factor [82], [83], [84], particularly in developing mutual agreements and operational protocols [80]. Additional enabling factors include effective policy incentives [77], sustained sub-national support for communities during post-implementation phase [69], and high-level leadership commitment, especially in cases where renewable power implementation initially appeared unfeasible due to remote locations [82].

Multi-stakeholder partnerships at every stage of decision-making and implementation [54], [85] emerge as a crucial factor, particularly collaboration with local utilities as demonstrated in Guinea Bissau's Bambadinca [86] and Haiti's Les Anglais [80]. The integrated social relations of communities prove essential for asset sustainability, extending to micro-enterprise development, resident capacity building, and active community participation [87]. These elements work together to address operational challenges at the community level a lack of clear management structure and dedicated project personnel in place, especially key management positions [72], [79], leading to sustainable models that overcome financial and governance issues [78].

Strategic approaches further strengthen implementation through evidence-based decision-making, demonstrated by comprehensive cost-benefit analyses and capacity building of national and local authority knowledge on RES, putting them as the country’s focal point as in Gambia case study [86]. Successful examples include Alaska's renewable-diesel hybrid model with minimal fossil fuel subsidies [88], and integration with national development priorities as shown in Cambodia [84], Philippines [89], and Bhutan [90]. These successes are underpinned by positive relationships across government levels and local communities [87], [91], highlighting how aligned governance structures at both institutional and political levels can enhance RES implementation outcomes.

Economic barriers to RES implementation manifest at both project and community levels. At the project level, challenges include higher levelised cost of energy (LCOE) an inability to address an optimal energy mix by prioritising locally available resources, as seen in Lucingweni, South Africa [73]. Dependency on limited financing sources like donor agencies [74], [77] and inadequate tariff structures since project inception evidenced in Fiji's failed renewable-hybrid micro-grid projects [92] can also impact in sustaining the operation of RES. These issues compromise O&M budgets including hardware replacement, hindering revenue generation, which then impact ongoing operational costs [69], [71], [74], [77]. Overall country economic instability can also have an influence [69]. At the community level, barriers can arise from low community willingness to pay for an electricity service [93]. Other economic barriers are exemplified in cases like Batzchocolá Village in Guatemala [80] where extreme poverty limits service affordability, and Mombou, Chad [86] where inaccurate purchasing power assessment alongside limited income-generating activities resulted in insufficient maintenance cost coverage. These factors collectively impact timely payment capabilities and system sustainability.

However, several economic factors enable successful RES implementation. The urgent need to reduce costly fossil fuel dependence in remote areas, particularly in indigenous communities like Pelelu Tepu (Suriname) [94], Fort Chipewyan (Canada) [82], and Alaska's remote villages [88], has driven the transition to cleaner, locally available energy source options. Other economic factors contributing to RES’ success are government subsidies, exemplified by Nepal's successful rural electrification program with 250 SHPs [91]; financial incentives such as Scotland's Renewable Obligation Certification in the Isle of Eigg [83]; and multiple revenue stream resulting from business diversification in Latin America and the Caribbean [80]. Other case studies also showed that cost-sharing and blended financing facilitated through partnerships with various actors and institutions effectively reduce high investment costs of renewable-based off-grid leading to successful implementation [80], [84], [95]. Overall, financial self-sufficiency from adequate revenue generation and appropriate tariff design are the economic drivers to ensure sustainability [96].

Additionally, community-level success is demonstrated through reduced household expenditure as documented in the Dominican Republic [80], Haiti [97], Cape Verde [98], and the Philippines [95]. Moreover, in some cases, the benefits extend beyond electricity expenditure reduction to include successful productive use of energy (PUE) applications, as seen in Guyanan communities (Powiakuru, Kangaruma, and Shulinab) using solar PV systems with centralised storage for processing fish and wild meat [80], local entrepreneur growth in Gbamu village of Nigeria [99], and the French Island of La Reunion's solar PV for agricultural activities [100], [101]. Furthermore, the presence of RES also contributes to increased household income, particularly in above-average income households [89]. The combination of these entrepreneurship opportunities, job creation [82], and service affordability, balanced with communities’ ability willingness to pay [87], [95], further contributes to sustainable implementation of RES in difficult-to-reach areas.

Social barriers significantly impact RES implementation success in rural communities. Studies from Chile [69] and Malawi [72] reveal that limited community engagement from project inception often leads to project stagnation. In this case, rather than fostering active participation, engagement was often reduced to mere information provision, a pattern also observed in Nigerian communities [71]. The Chilean case further demonstrated how inadequate engagement models fail to address diverse community needs, while system failures can create negative perceptions that spread to other communities, exacerbating barriers to adoption. Meanwhile, the Nigerian case further highlighted insufficient grassroots capacity building and knowledge transfer, challenges similarly documented in Vanatu's Tanna Island [74], alongside the challenge of retaining skilled local operators and technicians particularly when some of the best local talent migrates for better opportunities, given the remoteness of their homeland [91]. Social tensions arising from land acquisition processes can further impede RES development [102].

Conversely, successful RES implementation is driven by strong social factors, particularly synergistic multi-stakeholder participation [80]. Trust-based schemes and mutual learning have proven effective in El Hierro, Spain [103] and Hispaniola Island, Dominican Republic [97]. The involvement of non-technical experts (anthropologists, sociologists, legal specialists) from project inception enhances community communication [67], resulting in high community awareness, significant local influence in decision-making processes and approval of project rules and measures [80], [83]. Active community participation will lead to other benefits, including contributions of labour during construction processes, land provision, and seeking financial sources at the construction stage [77], [80], also prevention of the asset vandalism during the operational stage [79].

Strong community leadership [77], [83] and women's group participation, as demonstrated in El Espino, El Carmen, and Itayovai mini-grids (Bolivia) [80] and Pelelu Tepu (Suriname) [94], significantly contribute to success. Communities that can assess needs, set priorities, and collectively decide on their future as both individuals and an organised group are likely to strongly drive the project to success [97]. This empowerment strengthened through comprehensive capacity building [104] and strategic engagement of community agencies, including youth in environmental awareness [69], [82] and religious institutions in electrification missions [81]. Knowledge transfer from external developers, scientists, and practitioners to local actors, generate valuable community skills [104], encompassing both technical expertise for power plant operations and maintenance, as well as essential managerial, business development, and financial management capabilities [85]. The broader benefits that communities directly experience from electricity access-including improved healthcare, education, emergency response, and overall livelihood-can serve as social drivers that collectively sustain successful RES implementation [80], [89], [94], [97].

Feron et al. (2016) [69] and Akinyele et al. (2018) [71] identified similar technical barriers to RES implementation emerge across three critical project phases. In pre-construction, inadequate surveys and poor system sizing lead to unrealistic power supply estimates while construction phase challenges include substandard installation quality and unqualified personnel. Additionally, post-construction issues center on operational challenges due to unreliability of system performance during operation due to a lack of compliance standards, absence of maintenance procedures and practices, lack of monitoring systems, and unavailability of spare parts locally. These operational challenges are particularly evident in remote areas, with limited technical expertise forcing reliance on external support, as seen in Fiji [92] and Vanuatu [74]. Additional challenges include overutilisation issues, demonstrated in Mpanta, Zambia [79] and Ghanaian rural islands [102], while Nepal's SHP cases highlight how early-stage design and installation issues can threaten long-term sustainability [91].

In contrast, robust technical enablers, starting with accurate resource mapping and future-ready system design, can lead to successful RES implementation [87], [96]. Examples include smart metering in Haiti and remote monitoring in Colombia's La Guajira [80], along with hybrid systems in Philippines' Cobrador Island [95] and appropriate technology adaptation like Peru's low-speed wind turbines [87]. Local resource factors, including spare parts availability [69], local service partnerships [91], and supporting infrastructure as seen in Caribbean microgrids [80], further enhance system sustainability. Comprehensive community training in both demand management and efficient use of electricity [81], [83], [96], [105], as well as technical O&M for local technicians [77], [84], [90], [95] has proven crucial for long-term success. For some off-grid RES cases, the prospect of future grid connection should be kept open for sustainability purposes [77].

Ecological barriers significantly affect RES operations in remote areas, particularly for wind, hydro, and solar energy systems. Resource scarcity and seasonal variations [76] directly impact energy production, as demonstrated by the Zimbabwe’s Chipendeke SHP project, where decreased precipitation and drought reduced river flow and power generation capacity [106]. Additional challenges include natural phenomena like lightning strikes [81] and disaster events such as landslides and monsoons that can damage infrastructure [91].

Successful RES implementation, however, builds on several ecological enablers. The foundation begins with available local energy resources [93] and comprehensive climate datasets [85], including seasonal variations in hydrological parameters, wind patterns, and solar irradiance. The environmental benefits of RES can themselves become drivers, as seen in the Dominican Republic where communities engaged in reforestation to protect their SHP water resources [97]. Reducing a community’s heavy reliance on forests through RES implementation, specifically communities which use fuelwood as the primary energy source for activities like cooking, can be a driver too [90]. Furthermore, RES adoption has proven particularly valuable in reducing fossil fuel dependency and enhancing resilience during extreme weather conditions, as demonstrated in indigenous communities of Fort Chipewyan (Canada) [82] and Crile Creek (Australia) [107], hard-to-reach area like Kaur (Gambia) [86], and the storm-prone El Hierro Islands [103].

Cultural factors, often overlooked in project planning, play a crucial role in RES implementation success in off-grid areas. The South Africa’s Lucingweni mini-grid case study demonstrated how limited understanding of local conditions by project partners led to operational challenges and potentially project failure [93]. Additional barriers emerged in Ghana's mini-grid deployment, where despite World Bank support, insufficient attention to local cultural dynamics created community-level challenges arising from socio-cultural behaviour within the community [102]. Language barriers further complicate implementation, as seen in Mongolian mini-grid projects, where technical documentation in foreign languages hindered effective O&M [108].

However, successful RES projects effectively leverage cultural enablers, particularly through integration of indigenous traditions and local knowledge. This is exemplified in Indonesia's Ciptagelar community, where traditional values about nature connection support project success [104], and in Bhutan's Sengor SHP, where Buddhist cultural identity and environmental conservation contribute to the country's carbon-negative status [109]. The significance of communal work spirit and collective values has proven crucial for successful implementation, demonstrating how cultural alignment can enhance project sustainability, as argued by Guerreiro and Botetzagias (2018) [77] and Njoh et al. (2022) [76].

Historical barriers, though less discussed can be contributing factors to the low acceptance rate or even failure of RES projects in off-grid communities. For example, a historical issue relates to instances where community members have previously experienced extended periods of free electricity access, leaving them unprepared for the transition to a paid electricity system [93]. This lack of preparation can lead to resistance and difficulties in introducing sustainable renewable energy solutions within these remote communities.

Conversely, historical drivers can positively influence community-driven initiatives. A case study in Cameroon [76] highlighted two such factors: the deep-rooted tradition of self-help and volunteerism, and the alignment of technological solutions with historical community practices, such as African communities' longstanding use of solar energy for food preservation and heating. Similarly, remote Alaskan communities demonstrate how historical resilience can enable RES adoption. Their ancestral survival in one of the world's most environmentally challenging regions has fostered what is known as a "culture of innovation" [88]. This heritage, combined with their traditional wisdom and cultural practices, has led Alaskan residents to approach local energy initiatives with enthusiasm and community pride, facilitating successful microgrid implementations.

Geographical barriers are inherent in off-grid RES projects, particularly in areas unreachable by national grids. In geopolitically conflicted regions, such as the Esaghem solar PV mini-grid in Cameroon [76] and Chad's mini-grid projects [86], security issues disrupt maintenance schedules and logistics. Similarly, projects in disaster-prone areas face risks from flooding, earthquakes, and landslides, especially affecting site-specific installations like wind and SHP [85]. These environmental challenges can cause construction delays, cost overruns, and operational shutdowns, particularly for SHP projects requiring extensive civil work.

Regions with dispersed settlements and rough terrains present additional challenges for RES implementation [93], as low population density and scattered households make electricity network deployment costly. Limited accessibility impacts technical reliability by hampering repair and hardware replacement efforts [92]. Furthermore, for RES implementation linked with PUE, hard-to-reach locations can diminish the economic viability of the project. This is because such locations may restrict access to markets for PUE products, hindering the potential increase in local economic growth [91]. Geographical challenges are amplified in harsh environments, as demonstrated by Mongolian renewable-based mini-grid systems [108], where extreme conditions necessitate more sophisticated system deployment, increased maintenance efforts, and specialised component selection.