Climate change and energy security are strong drivers in a transition to sustainable energy. Increasing energy prices and the high dependence on non-renewable resources may be attributed to the current strong focus on centralized energy systems which operate mostly on the basis of fossil fuels [1]. By producing electricity and heat closer to the point of use decentralized energy systems can help counter such adverse effects [2]. Decentralized energy is to be preferred over traditional centralized electricity generation in that it serves to reduce distribution inefficiencies and facilitates the development of an increased contribution from renewables [3].

Bottom-up initiatives can play a crucial role in achieving more decentralized structures. Community energy projects are attracting increasing attention as potential sources of innovation in the transition towards sustainable energy [4]. Recent research, for example, has examined the role of community-based initiatives in the transition to a low-carbon, sustainable economy in the UK [5], as well as the role of new technologies in the decentralized production of renewable electricity, heat, combined heat and power (CHP) and fuels [6]. One important technology for decentralized production is photovoltaic [7].

We thus focused our research on citizen-based solar power plants as bottom-up initiatives in photovoltaic (hereafter, PV) technology. Due to its high technological potential and the rapidly decreasing costs, PV is an increasingly promising element of renewable energy production, and is the fastest growing renewable energy source worldwide. The Austrian scale-up target for PV, as stated in the electricity law of 2012 [8], is 1,200 MWp of installed capacity by 2020 (installed capacity in 2011: 173.8 MWp) [9].

At present, various forms of PV bottom-up initiatives are taking root in Austria, extending across all provinces. These include classical initiatives at the level of local communities and associations, as well as initiatives involving local and regional energy suppliers who wish to provide a possibility for their customers to invest and participate in renewable energy production. A tendency towards the professionalization of bottom-up initiatives may thus be observed, especially in the field of wind energy. Bottom-up initiatives in the field of photovoltaic have only begun to emerge in the past two years. Recent research on energy cooperatives in Austria reveals that the development paths for such initiatives comprise a) replication of other initiatives as a result of word of mouth information exchange, b) the emergence of mid-size enterprises from what were initially relatively small projects, and c) the entry of new actors onto the scene such as profit-orientated energy suppliers offering citizen investment models [10]. Generally, community participation initiatives offer several advantages for consumers, e.g. they can reduce the associated costs and risks for the individual, or minimize time and effort. To make the most of their potential, however, one needs to remember that bottom-up initiatives must also be integrated within the overall (renewable) energy strategy of Austria.

Buying a photovoltaic system demands high individual involvement since it is probably a decision that people make only once in their lives [11]. As a consequence, analysing and assessing how residents interpret community needs can often lead to constructive ideas and decisions [12]. Most studies focus on quantifying economic effects [13] and neglect the underlying conditions and constellations which support and enable decentralized electricity generation as part of local economic development [14]. Bomberg and Even [15] focused their research on the mobilization of citizens in the specific area of community energy and point out that community action must offer specific incentives in order for citizens to be willing to participate. In addition to any individual benefits arising, community renewables also support the lowering of emissions and help secure a more sustainable energy supply. Such benefits accrue to everyone, not only to direct participants, and these also need to be highlighted in such policy initiatives.

In this on-going research we analyse the role of bottom-up initiatives in the area of photovoltaics, and assess the potential for active citizen engagement in the development of local cooperatives and in promoting the usage of decentralized renewable energy. The main interest lies in the identification of key factors (incentives and barriers) for the further development of community-based photovoltaic projects.

The focus is thus placed on the examination of public perceptions and motives with respect to participation in community-based energy projects. Our main research questions are:

• What attitudes do people have towards community-led PV projects?

• What are the important social, psychological and economic determinants or motives driving participation or non-participation in different types of community-based initiatives in the field of photovoltaics?

• How could the further diffusion of community power plants in rural regions be supported?

The paper is structured as follows: The next section briefly describes the two communities that have been selected for our case study. On the one hand we focus our research on a “community of locality”; the municipality of Ligist/Austria, and its attempts to implement a public photovoltaic power plant. On the other hand we take a closer look at a “community of interest”, which in our case is represented by a photovoltaic cooperative of farmers in Hartberg/Austria. The section “methodology” gives an overview of the qualitative and quantitative empirical research, followed by a section presenting our findings and a related discussion. The final section offers conclusions and implications for the future development of bottom-up initiatives.

In order to answer our research questions, we applied a two-stage study design. In an initial exploratory step we conducted semi-structured interviews with initiators and (potential) participants of our two bottom-up case studies. Based on the insights gained in these interviews we conducted a quantitative empirical investigation among all community members of the two case studies.

Results show that while eco-attitudes are important motivating factors when deciding whether to join a citizen power plant, it is the economic drivers, such as secure investment, governmental subsidies or financial return which play a crucial role in engagement. Social network effects are also highly important in the diffusion process of such initiatives. In particular, collaborative initiatives are able to mobilize resources and to create opportunities for actions that are not available to a single actor.

Looking at communication channels, it was found that public meetings geared towards the provision of information on community power plants tend to have a high impact on people’s decision making, as does word of mouth, where people, who are already part of the initiative, inform others of their experience.

As we have seen, different types of bottom-up initiatives are currently taking root in Austria. Within a case study-based approach, we focused on two successful community-led PV projects - a community of interest, and a community of locality. A key question is the extent to which their success, however measured, can be replicated in other locations and contexts in the absence of the initial dynamics of innovation or the involvement of key enthusiasts and social entrepreneurs [17].

There are plenty of highly motivated people willing to promote renewable energy projects within small networks and communities. Thus, the initiation and development of such projects needs to be fostered by promoting funding policies and framework conditions such that the added-value that bottom-up initiatives can contribute to a future energy transition may be exploited to the full.